Conceptualisation: Debarshee Dasgupta, Subia Ahmad, Arnaaz Zaman & Archit Shukla.
Visualisation: Vanshika Kabra
South Asia is home to some of the most expansive and complex river systems in the world. These river systems — the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra — transcend the boundaries of modern nation-states, cutting across the borders of the Indian subcontinent and China. There is also a long history of infrastructural development along these rivers, often embedded in the post-colonial state-building narratives in South Asia. These rivers are an inseparable part of the region’s rich cultural, ecological, and geopolitical fabric and are governed by various formal and informal international and internal arrangements.
India manages its transboundary rivers through formal bilateral arrangements shaped by a long history of coexisting conflict and cooperation. These agreements, treaties, and protocols were mostly instituted in the latter half of the twentieth century. The recent triggers — the ‘abeyance’ of the Indus Water Treaty by India, China’s proposed mega dam on Yarlung Tsangpo (Brahmaputra), and the approaching expiry of the Ganga Water Treaty in 2026 along with the unresolved Teesta issue between India and Bangladesh have been long in the making — indicating that in the last three decades, the region as a whole has transformed geopolitically, ecologically, and economically.
The complex web of treaties governing these waters is further complicated by shifting alliances in the region and emerging powers, such as China, that seek expansion to assert their dominance. At the same time, India’s domestic imperatives of water sharing and infrastructural development are becoming an increasingly important determinant of India’s external hydropolitical relations. For instance, the Siang Upper Multipurpose Project (SUMP) in Arunachal Pradesh, conceived for hydropower development and as a buffer against upstream variations in flow, is subject to subnational and local conflicts. As these developments slowly unfold, there is a broad consensus in India that the existing water-sharing arrangements do not effectively address the contemporary challenges of climate risks, ecological degradation, rapid urbanisation, and technological innovation in areas like dam design, Early Warning Systems (EWS) etc. Moreover, the current dispute resolution mechanisms, necessary under these circumstances, remain inadequate. Experts further recommend revisiting India’s existing cooperative arrangements with its neighbours to account for these evolving conditions.
The process is highly complex and requires an objective and multidisciplinary analysis to delineate the different scenarios — climate change, geopolitical, and domestic socio-economic risks — and propose possible responses. A historical perspective on this broad range of matters provides a good starting point for analysis. Through this exercise, we aim to:
- Map the major treaties that govern transboundary water sharing between India and its neighbours to elucidate the interdependencies vis-à-vis hydropolitics.
- Engage with India’s bilateral water-sharing agreements over the years, and discuss their subnational socio-political and economic impact.
- Trace the key debates surrounding transboundary infrastructure and how these debates and discourses evolved over time.
- Discuss India’s existing transboundary water arrangements to address its long-term water security concerns.
Find the full timeline here: Overview Timeline
For any questions or feedback, please reach out to us at treads@cprindia.org.
This timeline has been compiled from various public sources including newspaper articles, journals, books and government documents. A detailed bibliography will be included in subsequent basin specific analyses.
